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At the university, doctoral training was a form of apprenticeship to a guild. The traditional term of study before new teachers were admitted to the guild of "Masters of Arts" was seven years, which was the same as the term of apprenticeship for other occupations. Originally the terms "master" and "doctor" were synonymous, but over time the doctorate came to be regarded as a higher qualification than the master's degree. A hypothesis by George Makdisi that the doctorate has its origins in the Islamic (Ijazah), a reversal of Makdisi's earlier view that saw both systems as being of "the most fundamental difference",[3] has been rejected by Tony Huff as unsubstantiated.[4]
It is not until recently that universities began to accept female students into their doctorate programs. In the year 1785, Complutense University became the first university to grant a doctorate to a female student, María Isidra de Guzmán y de la Cerda.[5] In comparison, the University of Oxford did not accept female scholars until the year 1920,[6] and the University of Cambridge did not grant a Ph.D. to a female student until the year 1926.[7]
The usage and meaning of the doctorate has changed over time, and it has also been subject to regional variations. For instance, until the early 20th century few academic staff or professors in English-speaking universities held doctorates, except for very senior scholars and those in holy orders. After that time the German practice of requiring prospective lecturers to have completed a research doctorate became widespread. Additionally, universities' shifts to research-oriented education increased the importance of the doctorate. Today, such a doctorate is generally a prerequisite for pursuing an academic career, although not everyone who receives a research doctorate becomes an academic by profession. Many universities also award "honorary doctorates" to individuals who have been deemed worthy of special recognition, either for scholarly work or for other contributions to the university or to society.
Although the research doctorate is almost universally accepted as the standard qualification for an academic career, it is a relatively new invention. While the structure of U.S. doctoral programs is more formal and complex than in some other systems, the research doctorate is not awarded for the preliminary advanced study that leads to doctoral candidacy, but rather for successfully completing and defending the independent research presented in the form of the doctoral dissertation (thesis). Several first-professional degrees use the term (doctor) in their title, such as the Juris Doctor and the US version of the Doctor of Medicine, but these degrees do not universally contain an independent research component or always require a dissertation (thesis) and should not be confused with Ph.D./D.Phil./Ed.D./D.Ed degrees or other research doctorates.[8] In fact, many universities offer Ph.D./D.Phil. followed by a professional doctorate degree or joint Ph.D./D.Phil. with the professional degree (most often Ph.D. work comes sequential to the professional degree): e.g. Ph.D./D.Phil. in law after J.D. or equivalent[9][10][11][12] in physical therapy after DPT,[13][14] in pharmacy after DPharm.[15][16] Often such professional degrees are referred to as entry level doctorate program[17][18][19] and Ph.D. as post-professional doctorate.[14]
The older-style doctorates (now usually called (higher doctorates in the United Kingdom) take much longer to complete, since candidates must show themselves to be leading experts in their subjects. These doctorates are now less common in some countries, and are often awarded honoris causa. The habilitation is still used for academic recruitment purposes in many countries within the EU, and involves either a new long thesis (a second book) or a portfolio of research publications. The habilitation demonstrates independent and thorough research, experience in teaching and lecturing, and, more recently, the ability to generate funding within the area of research. The "habilitation" is regarded as a senior post-doctoral qualification, many years after the research doctorate, and can be necessary for a Privatdozent (in Germa
ny) or professor position.
A similar system traditionally holds in Russia. Already in the Russian Empire the academic degree doctor of the sciences (doktor nauk) marked the highest academic degree which can be achieved by an examination. This system was generally adopted by the USSR/Russia and many post-Soviet countries. A lower degree, candidate [doctor] of the sciences (kandidat nauk), is, roughly, the Russian equivalent to the research doctorate in most other countries.
Research doctorates are awarded in recognition of academic research that is (at least in principle) publishable in a peer-refereed academic journal. In many countries, including the United States, earning a research doctorate also requires successful completion of a regimen of coursework beyond the masters level. The best-known degree of this type, in the Anglophone world, is that of Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D., or D.Phil. as it is abbreviated at the University of Oxford) awarded in many countries throughout the world. Others include the degree of Doctor of Arts, Doctor of Education, Doctor of Business Administration (DBA), Doctor of Information Security (DInfoSec), various doctorates in engineering, such as the US Doctor of Engineering[20] (also awarded in Japan and South Korea), the UK Engineering Doctorate[21] and the German Engineering Doctorate Doktor-Ingenieur and the German nature-science degree of Doctor rerum naturalium (Dr.rer.nat.). The Doctor of Theology, often stylized Th.D., is also a research doctorate, in theology, awarded by universities such as Harvard Divinity School and the University of Toronto among many others. Likewise, the Doctor of Sacred Theology is also a research doctorate in theology, but particular to Catholic Pontifical Universities and Faculties.
Criteria for award of research doctorates vary somewhat throughout the world, but typically requires the submission of a substantial body of
original research undertaken by the candidate. This may take the form of a single thesis or dissertation, or possibly a portfolio of shorter project reports; see also Thesis by publication. The submission will usually be assessed by a small committee of examiners appointed by the university, and often an oral examination of some kind. In some countries (such as the US) there may also be a formal component of classes that are taught, typically consisting of graduate-level courses in the subject in question, as well as training in research methodology.
The minimum time required to complete a research doctorate varies by country, and may be as short as three years (excluding undergraduate study), although it is not uncommon for a candidate to take up to six years to complete.
In the UK, an equivalent formation to doctorate is the QCF 8.[22]
Higher
countries, especially the United Kingdom, Ireland, Australia and some Scandinavian nations, or former USSR and other Eastern Bloc countries, there is a higher tier of research doctorates, awarded on the basis of a formally submitted portfolio of published research of a very high standard. Examples include the Doctor of Science (DSc/ScD) and Doctor of Letters (DLitt/LittD) degrees found in the UK, Ireland and some Commonwealth countries, and the traditional doctorates in Scandinavia. Today only Denmark and Sweden formally draws a distinction between higher and lower degrees at doctorate level. Denmark formally considers the PhD a successor to the Licentiate's degree (its official name prior to 2002 was "PhD (Licentiate)") and a lower degree than the "proper doctorates," and Sweden similarly awards both the Licentiate's degree as a lower-level doctorate and the proper doctorate as a higher-level degree. Norway on the contrary has abolished the Licentiate's degree completely and all Norwegian doctorates are now equal to the PhD, and thus lower degrees than the Swedish and Danish traditional doctorates, while equal to the Danish PhD (Licentiate's) degree and the Swedish Licentiate's degree.
The French, German and Polish habilitation (a formal professorial qualification with a thesis and an exam) is commonly regarded as belonging to this category. However, in some German states, the Habilitation is not an academic degree, but rather a professorial certification ("facultas docendi") that the person concerned holds all the qualifications needed to teach independently at a German university. In other German states, the "Habilitand" is awarded a formal "Dr. habil." degree. In some cases where such degrees are awarded, the holder of the degree may add "habil." to his or her research doctorate such as "Dr. phil. habil." or "Dr. rer. nat. habil." The French academic system used to have a higher doctorate, called "State doctorate" (doctorat d'État), but it was superseded by the habilitation in 1984.
In Poland, the title of Docent was formerly used, but as of 2005 was changed to a formal "Dr hab." (doktor habilitowany) degree. See below (Poland section) for more details.
ontributions to a particular field.
Professional
See also: First professional degree
Professional doctorates are awarded in certain fields where scholarly research is closely aligned with a particular profession, such as law, medicine, social work or psychology. Examples include the US and Canadian degrees of Doctor of Medicine (M.D.), Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine (D.O.), Doctor of Optometry (O.D.), Doctor of Chiropractic (D.C.), Doctor of Pharmacy (Pharm.D.), Doctor of Physical Therapy (D.P.T.), Doctor of Psychology (Psy.D.), Doctor of Social Work (D.S.W.), Doctor of Nursing Practice (D.N.P.), Doctor of Dental Surgery (D.D.S.), Doctor of Dental Medicine (D.M.D.), Doctor of Veterinary Medicine (D.V.M.), Juris Doctor (J.D.), and Doctor of Ministry (D.Min).
Professional doctorates originated in the United States, with the introduction of the M.D. at Columbia University in 1767,[23] almost 100 years before a research doctorate—that is, a PhD—was awarded in that country, at Yale in 1861.[24] The J.D. was introduced in 1870, just a few years after the PhD.[25]
The term Professional Doctorate is used to refer to research doctorates with a focus on applied research, or research as used for professional purposes.[26] Among others, these include the degrees of Doctor of Clinical Practice (DClinP), Doctor of Information Security (DInfoSec), Doctor of Strategic Leadership (DSL), Doctor of Public Administration (DPA), Doctor of Social Work (DSW), Doctor of Biblical Studies (D.B.S.), Doctor of Law and Policy (Lp.D), Doctor of Practical Theology (DPT),[27] Doctor of Professional Studies (DPS or DProf), Doctor of the Built Environment (DBEnv)[28] and some others in various specified professional fields. Also included in this area is the Doctor of Education (Ed.D.).
In Australia, the term is on occasion applied to the SJD,[29][30][31] and on other occasions that degree is also categorized as a research degree.[32][33]
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